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Coping is a term used in psychology, which deals with problems of stress and the way someone copes with it. It concerns the handling of all types of continuous stressors, such as unemployment, divorce, pain or war. The English-language understanding is derived from the verb to cope with (can deal with or able to cope with something).

Different researchers use different definitions of the concept of “coping”. An important researcher in the field of coping and stress reduction was the American psychologist Richard Lazarus. He defined coping as “cognitive and behavioral efforts to reduce or tolerate internal and/or external demands and to overcome the conflicts between them”. The concept of “efforts” in this definition makes it clear that the manifestations of coping may be different, and that they do not always lead to the desired solution.

Coping is a combination of the intellectual and emotional responses to stress or a problem, and the behavior that therefrom. There are several strategies and mechanisms of coping. The mechanism that people apply can change depending on the circumstances and their coping strategy (also called copingstegy), associated with their personality.

When confronted with a problematic circumstances make people two reviews. The first is an assessment of the situation (the primary rating: “what’s going on?”), the second is an assessment of the best solution (the secondary rating: “what am I going to do with it?”).

How someone responds to a stressful situation is not or hardly determined by the nature of the problem, but much more by one’s coping strategy. Depending on one’s coping strategy, a person may choose from several ways (coping mechanisms) to deal with a problem. That coping strategy can change over time.

Coping strategies are classified in different ways. Much applied formats are coming to emotion-and problem-oriented coping, or coming to primary and secondary coping. Problem-focused coping from one format is fairly similar to primary coping from the other.

With problem-oriented coping one tries to solve the problem. At emotion-focused coping one tries to change the feelings that is causing the problem.

At primary coping, the person is trying to resolve a problematic situation. At secondary coping, one tries to adapt his or her behavior to the situation.

In a particular coping strategy use can be made of a variety of mechanisms.

A common format is:

• Active addressing: the problem is analyzed and resolved.
• Social support searching: find solace and understanding in others, along with another solution to the problem.
• Avoid: the problem is denied and avoided.
• Palliative reaction: one focuses on things other than the problem. In extreme form it can lead to addictions.
• Depressed response pattern: blame themselves, worry, self-doubt.
• Expression of emotions: the problem leads to frustration, tension and aggression.
• Comforting thoughts and wishful thinking: one is that the problem will automatically work out or that others have much heavier ones.

Some researchers see religion as a separate distinguishable coping mechanism. Others conceive it as a support for the aforementioned mechanisms.

The effectiveness of the coping mechanism depends on the context. In a stressful situation, any coping mechanism is the right one. “Actively addressing” and “social support” are generally understood as effective mechanism. But active addressing can lead to an increase in stress in a situation where the individual can actually bring no change. Mechanisms, as a depressed reaction pattern and expression of emotions are generally less adequate. These are mechanisms that occur in people with a more emotion-focused coping strategy.

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Neuroradiology is a medical discipline that includes in-depth knowledge and skills in the radiological diagnosis of diseases, injuries, and malformations in the central nervous system both in the head and the back. Specialist in neuroradiology also requires knowledge, skills and attitudes which are required to run radiology diagnostic.

There are several different techniques to study the functions and structures of the brain. The oldest method is the conventional x-ray imaging, which gives some information about the structure but no information about electroencephalography, developed in 1929 by Berger, measured through small electrodes the nerve impulses of neurons in the brain. The method of the “cognitive evoked potentials” is to measure electrical brain activity differences when the patient is subject to cognitive tests. Because the brain still has electrical activity even when it rests, there is background noise, which scrambles the signal, tests are repeated many times to allow the experimenter to make the average of the measured signals (and this generally on several subjects). The obtained average signal is called “evoked potential”. This method has the advantage of making measurements of reaction time for the brain to specific tests, which gives an idea of the complexity of the treatment and to differentiate between successive activities separated by a few milliseconds. On the other hand, this type of testing” does not detect signals from fairly deep brain areas, since they are too attenuated.

The magneto-encephalography measures magnetic fields due to the electrical activity of neurons, without direct contact with the head of the subject. These magnetic fields are much smaller than the Earth’s magnetic field and thus MEG requires a shielded room, to which the helium liquid cooling with a hundred of ultra-sensitive superconductive sensors are added, which involves a very large investment. This technique allows, in addition to the benefits of the EEG to measure signals of deep and full of effectively areas the results achieved by the fMRI.

Imaging by functional magnetic resonance (fMRI) indirectly measures the increase in blood flow (which follows the activation of neurons, but with a lag of a few seconds), using the property of hemoglobin deprived of oxygen (the Deoxyhemoglobin) to disrupt a magnetic field. The obtained signal called BOLD (Blood Oxygenation Level Dependent) provides access to a section of the brain. A heavy treatment is then to overlay different cuts (it takes approximately 40 cuts for whole brain), to correct any movements of the subject, and then to make a comparison with the brain standard indications. Responses to each stimulus are combined with sections of the brain to get a statistical color 3D card that evolves in time. The resulting image is more accurate than with the EEG and MEG, but the disadvantages are numerous: containment of the topic, noise important device, strong magnetic field, many repetitions of the experiment, heavy computer processing.

Positron Emission Tomography (PET) is injected to the subject a radioactive marker (water or glucose) that will disintegrate into positrons (antiparticuls associated with electrons) and this especially as the area of the brain is irrigated in blood. Energy from the reaction of positrons with electrons is detected and analyzed to identify precisely the activated areas of the brain. This method is almost as good as fMRI while being more visual, but requires the manufacture of radioactive solution on-site and experiments limited to the authorized radioactive dose.

Among modern medical advances, those involving brain imaging are particularly important and spectacular. They allow us to observe the organization of our neurons and their exchanges of information with more details.

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Discovered
in the 1970s, biofeedback was first used in EEG (Electroencephalograph) with productions of alpha waves.

The inventors of modern relaxation techniques, Edmund Jacobson with his progressive relaxation, and Alfonso Caycedo with Sophrology, have used biofeedback to measure the effectiveness of their methods.

One of the ways to that is the use of EMG (electro-myogramme), which after a decade, came back into use along with the muscle tension control, in addition to the methods of traditional relaxations (autogenous training by Schultz, sophrology, and Edmund Jacobson’s progressive relaxation).

In the broad sense, the biofeedback or biological feedback is a set of techniques mainly relating to using bioelectricity for the measurement of organic functions, based on detecting and observing physiological signals of a conscious subject of these measures using electrical equipment.

Specifically, there is biofeedback when the subject in question can control the organic functions measured, either voluntarily (forexample, based on the results, and to correct a stress) or involuntarily (for example, after a change of psychological state, such as stress).

These techniques were initially very expensive (up to 3000 euros). But with the integration of electronic circuits, the arrival of microcomputers and (free) software, technology is simplified and prices fell significantly.

Biofeedback has found clinical application in psychology, Neurology, cardiology, Gastroenterology, urology, Pediatrics, geriatrics, rehabilitation medicine, and preventive medicine. Non-clinical application is in the effective stress management that allows to improve performance in the professional sport and art, as well as any activity that requires sustained efforts and great responsibility for correcting the so-called border states, caused by uncontrolled effect of chronic stress in pedagogy, where using biofeedback technology helps dealing with the issues of improving educational process, development of creative abilities, etc.

A modern biofeedback device consists of a single integrated circuit called instrumentation amplifier, which amplifies the versatile physiological signals, i.e., waves the brain waves, heart and muscles produces. Here we have tensions are of about 1/10 of millivolts, at frequencies from 0 to 3000 Hz. A link circuit (coupler) is used to return the signals to a computer sound card. All processing (filtering, visualization, etc.) is done with freeware programs, found now in abundance on the Internet and which allow to create versatile ‘all signals’ machines: EEG, ECG, EMG.

We know that the perception of pain is governed by ascending nerves (ranging from pain to the brain receptor) and descending nerves (going in the opposite direction). It is recognized that a subject can modulate his perception of pain by using strategies of distraction (counting, visualization, etc.) A team of Stanford University has managed to reduce the pain by allowing persons suffering from chronic ailments observing their brain activity using magnetic resonance imaging.

In this study, subjects were invited to observe the activity of the Cingulate cortex, an area that translates the signals of subjective pain.

Neurofeedback helps heal naturally many disorders and pathologies of everyday life such as tinnitus, migraines, insomnia, stress, anxiety, fears, phobias, hyperactivity, chronic pain, chronic fatigue, fibromyalgia, dependence and addiction, tics, tocs and much more.

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Memory
repression is one of the defense mechanisms known in psychology. It means a removal from the consciousness of thoughts, feelings, memories, impulses, fantasies, desires, etc. which evoke the painful connotations or otherwise threat the cohesion of the personality (for example, provoke questions about morality, give rise to feelings of guilt, etc.).

Repressed thoughts are are not available to consciousness. Tepression is not a one-time process and requires constant energy input.

Example: an employee does not allow to himself thoughts about the possibility of redundancies, which is said to be in his company. It feels like this is better (reducing the frustration), but the employee is completely unprepared when layoff occurs (reality distortion). Continue reading “Essay on Repressed and Recovered Memory”